content warning: racism
Many modern approaches to feminism have adopted an intersectional lens to address the unique experiences of Black women, indigenous women, immigrant women, and other women of color.
That being said, many women of color in the last century or so have been dissatisfied by the goals and mission of predominantly white feminist groups (that is, feminist groups or initiatives that predominantly serve the needs and identities of white people).
When you're learning about feminist history and theory, you'll run into a subcategory titled generally as "women-of-color feminisms." This includes more specific approaches like Black feminist thought.
"As the third wave of feminism progressed, the conviction that women-of-color feminism(s) were essential to feminist theorizing grew in popularity. Gradually, the idea that forms, modes, or axes of oppression (such as race, gender, class, sexuality, and ability status) overlap and fuse in the lives of oppressed people came to the fore." (Tong & Bott's Feminist Thought, p. 108)
It's important to note that this idea of women of color feminisms makes the most sense and is used most frequently when looking at feminist history in contexts that are and have been predominantly white. You can definitely refer to the specific approach to feminism that is happening in, say, India and call this "Indian feminism" which would logically be a women of color feminism. But when we say "women of color feminisms," we're most often referring to feminist approaches created either in direct opposition to or as a critique of mainstream, white-serving feminism.
What does "of color" mean...
The use of "women of color" and "people of color" (especially when used by white people) has been critiqued in the last few decades. It's sometimes seen as a scapegoat for recognizing unique racial and ethic groups' experiences.
Just as you should only say "Native American" when there isn't a reason or possibility to specify a particular tribe, you should only say "women of color" or "people of color" when you are talking about that entire non-white group. If you are referring to the specific experiences of Black people, Muslim women, Asian American men, and so on, then use that more specific, correct term.
"As Black feminists we are made constantly and painfully aware of how little effort white women have made to understand and combat their racism, which requires among other things that they have a more than superficial comprehension of race, color, and black history and culture." (The Combahee River Collective Statement)
In a book on feminist theory by Rosemarie Tong and Tina Fernandes Botts, they identify 5 criteria for being a person of color, or a racialized individual:
Having one's non-Western culture devalued
Having "double consciousness"
Being pressured to assimilate to the dominant (white) culture
Being denied access to white privilege
Being expected to be more competent than nonracialized persons
Feminist individuals and groups that have centered their theorizing and activism around their racial identity would be considered women of color feminists.
There are also groups of women of color who reject the term "feminism" because of its historical white-centered approach. An example of this is Womanism.
"To be a womanist meant that one encompassed some facets of feminism, but with more inclusivity and appreciation for the Black experience. Whereas feminism offered a type of privilege to only white women, ignoring the many struggles of women of color, womanism confronted both sexism and racism." (Camille Rahatt, "How Alice Walker Created Womanism")
Helpful resources for your learning...
Note: List compiled by Tong & Botts; by no means complete with all notable women of color feminists.
Black feminists: Sojourner Truth, Kimberlé Crenshaw, Audre Lorde, bell hooks, Patricia Hill Collins, Anna Julia Cooper
Latin American/Latina/Chicana feminists: Gloria Anzaldúa, Christina Herrera, Maria Lugones, Cherríe Moraga, Ofelia Schutte, Chela Sandoval
Asian American Feminists: Grace Lee Boggs, Yuri Kochiyama, Leslie Bow, Mitsuye Yamada
Indigenous feminists: Paula Gunn Allen, Luana Ross
Citations
Paula Gunn Allen highlighting the divide between indigenous feminism and mainstream (white) feminism
Allen, P. G. (1986). Kochinnenako in academe: Three approaches to interpreting a keres indian tale. In R. Warhol-Down & D. P. Herndl (Eds.), Feminisms redux: An anthology of literary theory and criticism (pp. 284-302). Rutgers University Press.
Excerpt from one of Gloria Anzaldúa's works
Anzaldúa, G. E. (2009). The new mestiza nation. In A. Keating (Ed.), The Gloria Anzaldúa reader (pp. 203-323). The Gloria E. Anzaldúa Literary Trust.
bell hooks' vision of a radical feminism that incorporates other forms of oppression like racism, classism
Biography of Anna Julia Cooper, the "mother of Black feminism"
Sojourner Truth's "Ain't I A Woman?" speech and contemporary significance
Brah, A., & Phoenix, A. (2004, May). Ain't I A Woman? Revisiting intersectionality. Journal of International Women's Studies, 5(3), 75-86.
A statement put out by a Black feminist group
Combahee River Collective. (1983). The Combahee River Collective statement. Home girls: A Black feminist anthology, 1 (pp. 264-274).
Video describing Grace Lee Boggs' activist impact
Detroit Historical Society. (2021, January 18). Detroit history heroes episode 6 - Grace Lee Boggs [Video].
An excerpt by Asian American feminist Yuri Kochiyama
Kochiyama, Y. (1997). Preface: Trailblazing in a white world, a brief history of Asian/Pacific American Women. In S. Shah (Ed.), Dragon ladies: Asian American feminists breathe fire, (pp. v-viii). South End Press.
A collection of Audre Lorde's work related to Black feminism
Explanation of double consciousness, coined by W.E.B. Du Bois
Article on Womanism and its founder, Alice Walker
Rahatt, C. (2020, January 24). How Alice Walker created Womanism: The movement that meets Black women where feminism misses the mark. Blavity News.
A genealogy of feminist theory and analysis of U.S. Third World feminism
Schutte's Latin American feminist approach to social liberation
Schutte, O. (1993). Cultural identity and social liberation in Latin American thought. State University of New York Press.
Book summarizing all feminist theory and approaches
Tong, R., & Botts, T. F. (2018). Feminist thought: A more comprehensive introduction, 3rd ed. Westview Press.
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